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 // This file is part of the ACTS project.
 //
 // Copyright (C) 2016 CERN for the benefit of the ACTS project
 //
 // This Source Code Form is subject to the terms of the Mozilla Public
 // License, v. 2.0. If a copy of the MPL was not distributed with this
 // file, You can obtain one at https://mozilla.org/MPL/2.0/.
 
 #pragma once
 
 #include "Acts/Utilities/GridIterator.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Utilities/IAxis.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Utilities/Interpolation.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Utilities/TypeTag.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Utilities/detail/grid_helper.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Utilities/detail/interpolation_impl.hpp"
 
 #include <any>
 #include <array>
 #include <tuple>
 #include <type_traits>
 #include <typeinfo>
 #include <utility>
 #include <vector>
 
 #include <boost/container/small_vector.hpp>
 
 namespace Acts {
 
 namespace detail {
 
 template <typename>
 class AnyGridView;
 template <typename>
 class AnyGridConstView;
 
 }  // namespace detail
 
 /// Base class for all grid types
 class IGrid {
  public:
   virtual ~IGrid() = default;
 
   /// Get a dynamically sized vector of axis objects for inspection
   /// @return a vector of axis pointers
   virtual boost::container::small_vector<const IAxis*, 3> axes() const = 0;
 
   /// @brief Get the number of dimensions of the grid
   /// @return The number of dimensions of the grid
   virtual std::size_t dimensions() const = 0;
 
   /// @brief Get the type of the values stored in the grid
   /// @return The type of the values stored in the grid
   virtual std::type_info const& valueType() const = 0;
 
   /// Type-erased interface to access the contents of the grid
   ///
   /// @note This interface has non-negligible runtime overhead due to packing
   ///       and unpacking from/to @c std::any and the dynamically sized index and
   ///       point types. **USE WITH CARE!**
   ///
   /// @{
   using AnyIndexType = boost::container::small_vector<std::size_t, 3>;
   /// Type alias for dynamic point type (coordinates as vector of doubles)
   using AnyPointType = boost::container::small_vector<double, 3>;
 
   /// @brief Get the lower left edge of a bin for a given set of indices
   /// @param indices The indices to get the lower left edge of the bin for
   /// @return The lower left edge of the bin
   virtual AnyPointType lowerLeftBinEdgeAny(AnyIndexType indices) const = 0;
 
   /// @brief Get the upper right edge of a bin for a given set of indices
   /// @param indices The indices to get the upper right edge of the bin for
   /// @return The upper right edge of the bin
   virtual AnyPointType upperRightBinEdgeAny(AnyIndexType indices) const = 0;
 
   /// @brief Get the center of a bin for a given set of indices
   /// @param indices The indices to get the center of the bin for
   /// @return The center of the bin
   virtual AnyPointType binCenterAny(AnyIndexType indices) const = 0;
 
   /// @brief Get the number of local bins for a given set of indices
   /// @return The number of local bins
   virtual AnyIndexType numLocalBinsAny() const = 0;
 
   /// @}
 
   /// Helper to print out the grid
   /// @param os the output stream
   /// @param grid the grid to print
   /// @return the output stream
   friend std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& os, const IGrid& grid) {
     grid.toStream(os);
     return os;
   }
 
   friend bool operator==(const IGrid& lhs, const IGrid& rhs) {
     auto lhsAxes = lhs.axes();
     auto rhsAxes = rhs.axes();
     return lhsAxes.size() == rhsAxes.size() &&
            std::equal(lhsAxes.begin(), lhsAxes.end(), rhsAxes.begin(),
                       [](const IAxis* a, const IAxis* b) { return *a == *b; });
   }
 
  protected:
   /// @param os Output stream to write grid representation to
   virtual void toStream(std::ostream& os) const = 0;
 
   /// @brief Get the value of a bin for a given set of indices
   /// @param indices The indices to get the value of the bin for
   /// @return The value of the bin: the @c std::any contains a const pointer to
   ///         the value
   virtual std::any atLocalBinsAny(AnyIndexType indices) const = 0;
 
   /// @brief Get the value of a bin for a given set of indices
   /// @param indices The indices to get the value of the bin for
   /// @return The value of the bin: the @c std::any contains a pointer to the
   ///         value
   virtual std::any atLocalBinsAny(AnyIndexType indices) = 0;
 
   template <typename>
   friend class AnyGridView;
   template <typename>
   friend class AnyGridConstView;
 };
 
 /// @brief class for describing a regular multi-dimensional grid
 ///
 /// @tparam T    type of values stored inside the bins of the grid
 /// @tparam Axes parameter pack of axis types defining the grid
 ///
 /// Class describing a multi-dimensional, regular grid which can store objects
 /// in its multi-dimensional bins. Bins are hyper-boxes and can be accessed
 /// either by global bin index, local bin indices or position.
 ///
 /// @note @c T must be default-constructible.
 /// @note @c T must not be @c bool, because @c std::vector<bool> is special
 ///          and does not return references to its elements.
 template <typename T, class... Axes>
   requires(std::is_default_constructible_v<T> && !std::is_same_v<T, bool>)
 class Grid final : public IGrid {
  public:
   /// number of dimensions of the grid
   static constexpr std::size_t DIM = sizeof...(Axes);
 
   /// type of values stored
   using value_type = T;
   /// reference type to values stored
   using reference = value_type&;
   /// constant reference type to values stored
   using const_reference = const value_type&;
   /// type for points in d-dimensional grid space
   using point_t = std::array<double, DIM>;
   /// index type using local bin indices along each axis
   using index_t = std::array<std::size_t, DIM>;
   /// global iterator type
   using global_iterator_t = GridGlobalIterator<T, Axes...>;
   /// local iterator type
   using local_iterator_t = GridLocalIterator<T, Axes...>;
 
   /// @brief Constructor from const axis tuple, this will allow
   /// creating a grid with a different value type from a template
   /// grid object.
   ///
   /// @param axes
   explicit Grid(const std::tuple<Axes...>& axes) : m_axes(axes) {
     m_values.resize(size());
   }
 
   /// @brief Move constructor from axis tuple
   /// @param axes
   explicit Grid(std::tuple<Axes...>&& axes) : m_axes(std::move(axes)) {
     m_values.resize(size());
   }
 
   /// @brief constructor from parameters pack of axes
   /// @param axes
   explicit Grid(Axes&&... axes) : m_axes(std::forward_as_tuple(axes...)) {
     m_values.resize(size());
   }
 
   /// @brief constructor from parameters pack of axes
   /// @param axes
   explicit Grid(const Axes&... axes) : m_axes(std::tuple(axes...)) {
     m_values.resize(size());
   }
 
   /// @brief constructor from parameters pack of axes and type tag
   /// @param axes
   explicit Grid(TypeTag<T> /*tag*/, Axes&&... axes)
       : m_axes(std::forward_as_tuple(axes...)) {
     m_values.resize(size());
   }
 
   /// @brief constructor from parameters pack of axes and type tag
   /// @param axes
   explicit Grid(TypeTag<T> /*tag*/, const Axes&... axes)
       : m_axes(std::tuple(axes...)) {
     m_values.resize(size());
   }
 
   // Grid(TypeTag<T> /*tag*/, Axes&... axes) = delete;
 
   /// @brief access value stored in bin for a given point
   ///
   /// @tparam Point any type with point semantics supporting component access
   ///               through @c operator[]
   /// @param [in] point point used to look up the corresponding bin in the
   ///                   grid
   /// @return reference to value stored in bin containing the given point
   ///
   /// @pre The given @c Point type must represent a point in d (or higher)
   ///      dimensions where d is dimensionality of the grid.
   ///
   /// @note The look-up considers under-/overflow bins along each axis.
   ///       Therefore, the look-up will never fail.
   //
   template <class Point>
   reference atPosition(const Point& point) {
     return m_values.at(globalBinFromPosition(point));
   }
 
   /// @brief access value stored in bin for a given point
   ///
   /// @tparam Point any type with point semantics supporting component access
   ///               through @c operator[]
   /// @param [in] point point used to look up the corresponding bin in the
   ///                   grid
   /// @return const-reference to value stored in bin containing the given
   ///         point
   ///
   /// @pre The given @c Point type must represent a point in d (or higher)
   ///      dimensions where d is dimensionality of the grid.
   ///
   /// @note The look-up considers under-/overflow bins along each axis.
   ///       Therefore, the look-up will never fail.
   template <class Point>
   const_reference atPosition(const Point& point) const {
     return m_values.at(globalBinFromPosition(point));
   }
 
   /// @brief access value stored in bin with given global bin number
   ///
   /// @param  [in] bin global bin number
   /// @return reference to value stored in bin containing the given
   ///         point
   reference at(std::size_t bin) { return m_values.at(bin); }
 
   /// @brief access value stored in bin with given global bin number
   ///
   /// @param  [in] bin global bin number
   /// @return const-reference to value stored in bin containing the given
   ///         point
   const_reference at(std::size_t bin) const { return m_values.at(bin); }
 
   /// @brief access value stored in bin with given local bin numbers
   ///
   /// @param  [in] localBins local bin indices along each axis
   /// @return reference to value stored in bin containing the given
   ///         point
   ///
   /// @pre All local bin indices must be a valid index for the corresponding
   ///      axis (including the under-/overflow bin for this axis).
   reference atLocalBins(const index_t& localBins) {
     return m_values.at(globalBinFromLocalBins(localBins));
   }
 
   /// @copydoc Acts::IGrid::atLocalBinsAny
   std::any atLocalBinsAny(AnyIndexType indices) const override {
     const_reference cref = atLocalBins(toIndexType(indices));
     return &cref;
   }
 
   /// @brief access value stored in bin with given local bin numbers
   ///
   /// @param  [in] localBins local bin indices along each axis
   /// @return const-reference to value stored in bin containing the given
   ///         point
   ///
   /// @pre All local bin indices must be a valid index for the corresponding
   ///      axis (including the under-/overflow bin for this axis).
   const_reference atLocalBins(const index_t& localBins) const {
     return m_values.at(globalBinFromLocalBins(localBins));
   }
 
   /// @copydoc Acts::IGrid::atLocalBinsAny
   std::any atLocalBinsAny(AnyIndexType indices) override {
     reference ref = atLocalBins(toIndexType(indices));
     return &ref;
   }
 
   /// @brief get global bin indices for closest points on grid
   ///
   /// @tparam Point any type with point semantics supporting component access
   ///               through @c operator[]
   /// @param [in] position point of interest
   /// @return Iterable thatemits the indices of bins whose lower-left corners
   ///         are the closest points on the grid to the input.
   ///
   /// @pre The given @c Point type must represent a point in d (or higher)
   ///      dimensions where d is dimensionality of the grid. It must lie
   ///      within the grid range (i.e. not within a under-/overflow bin).
   template <class Point>
   detail::GlobalNeighborHoodIndices<DIM> closestPointsIndices(
       const Point& position) const {
     return rawClosestPointsIndices(localBinsFromPosition(position));
   }
 
   /// @brief dimensionality of grid
   ///
   /// @return number of axes spanning the grid
   std::size_t dimensions() const override { return DIM; }
 
   /// @copydoc Acts::IGrid::valueType
   const std::type_info& valueType() const override { return typeid(T); }
 
   /// @brief get center position of bin with given local bin numbers
   ///
   /// @param  [in] localBins local bin indices along each axis
   /// @return center position of bin
   ///
   /// @pre All local bin indices must be a valid index for the corresponding
   ///      axis (excluding the under-/overflow bins for each axis).
   point_t binCenter(const index_t& localBins) const {
     return detail::grid_helper::getBinCenter(localBins, m_axes);
   }
 
   AnyPointType binCenterAny(AnyIndexType indices) const override {
     return toAnyPointType(binCenter(toIndexType(indices)));
   }
 
   /// @brief determine global index for bin containing the given point
   ///
   /// @tparam Point any type with point semantics supporting component access
   ///               through @c operator[]
   ///
   /// @param  [in] point point to look up in the grid
   /// @return global index for bin containing the given point
   ///
   /// @pre The given @c Point type must represent a point in d (or higher)
   ///      dimensions where d is dimensionality of the grid.
   /// @note This could be a under-/overflow bin along one or more axes.
   template <class Point>
   std::size_t globalBinFromPosition(const Point& point) const {
     return globalBinFromLocalBins(localBinsFromPosition(point));
   }
 
   /// @brief determine global bin index from local bin indices along each axis
   ///
   /// @param  [in] localBins local bin indices along each axis
   /// @return global index for bin defined by the local bin indices
   ///
   /// @pre All local bin indices must be a valid index for the corresponding
   ///      axis (including the under-/overflow bin for this axis).
   std::size_t globalBinFromLocalBins(const index_t& localBins) const {
     return detail::grid_helper::getGlobalBin(localBins, m_axes);
   }
 
   /// @brief  determine global bin index of the bin with the lower left edge
   ///         closest to the given point for each axis
   ///
   /// @tparam Point any type with point semantics supporting component access
   ///               through @c operator[]
   ///
   /// @param  [in] point point to look up in the grid
   /// @return global index for bin containing the given point
   ///
   /// @pre The given @c Point type must represent a point in d (or higher)
   ///      dimensions where d is dimensionality of the grid.
   /// @note This could be a under-/overflow bin along one or more axes.
   template <class Point>
   std::size_t globalBinFromFromLowerLeftEdge(const Point& point) const {
     return globalBinFromLocalBins(localBinsFromLowerLeftEdge(point));
   }
 
   /// @brief  determine local bin index for each axis from the given point
   ///
   /// @tparam Point any type with point semantics supporting component access
   ///               through @c operator[]
   ///
   /// @param  [in] point point to look up in the grid
   /// @return array with local bin indices along each axis (in same order as
   ///         given @c axes object)
   ///
   /// @pre The given @c Point type must represent a point in d (or higher)
   ///      dimensions where d is dimensionality of the grid.
   /// @note This could be a under-/overflow bin along one or more axes.
   template <class Point>
   index_t localBinsFromPosition(const Point& point) const {
     return detail::grid_helper::getLocalBinIndices(point, m_axes);
   }
 
   /// @brief determine local bin index for each axis from global bin index
   ///
   /// @param  [in] bin global bin index
   /// @return array with local bin indices along each axis (in same order as
   ///         given @c axes object)
   ///
   /// @note Local bin indices can contain under-/overflow bins along the
   ///       corresponding axis.
   index_t localBinsFromGlobalBin(std::size_t bin) const {
     return detail::grid_helper::getLocalBinIndices(bin, m_axes);
   }
 
   /// @brief  determine local bin index of the bin with the lower left edge
   ///         closest to the given point for each axis
   ///
   /// @tparam Point any type with point semantics supporting component access
   ///               through @c operator[]
   ///
   /// @param  [in] point point to look up in the grid
   /// @return array with local bin indices along each axis (in same order as
   ///         given @c axes object)
   ///
   /// @pre The given @c Point type must represent a point in d (or higher)
   ///      dimensions where d is dimensionality of the grid.
   /// @note This could be a under-/overflow bin along one or more axes.
   template <class Point>
   index_t localBinsFromLowerLeftEdge(const Point& point) const {
     Point shiftedPoint;
     point_t width = detail::grid_helper::getWidth(m_axes);
     for (std::size_t i = 0; i < DIM; i++) {
       shiftedPoint[i] = point[i] + width[i] / 2;
     }
     return detail::grid_helper::getLocalBinIndices(shiftedPoint, m_axes);
   }
 
   /// @brief retrieve lower-left bin edge from set of local bin indices
   ///
   /// @param  [in] localBins local bin indices along each axis
   /// @return generalized lower-left bin edge position
   ///
   /// @pre @c localBins must only contain valid bin indices (excluding
   ///      underflow bins).
   point_t lowerLeftBinEdge(const index_t& localBins) const {
     return detail::grid_helper::getLowerLeftBinEdge(localBins, m_axes);
   }
 
   /// @copydoc Acts::IGrid::lowerLeftBinEdgeAny
   AnyPointType lowerLeftBinEdgeAny(AnyIndexType indices) const override {
     return toAnyPointType(lowerLeftBinEdge(toIndexType(indices)));
   }
 
   /// @brief retrieve upper-right bin edge from set of local bin indices
   ///
   /// @param  [in] localBins local bin indices along each axis
   /// @return generalized upper-right bin edge position
   ///
   /// @pre @c localBins must only contain valid bin indices (excluding
   ///      overflow bins).
   point_t upperRightBinEdge(const index_t& localBins) const {
     return detail::grid_helper::getUpperRightBinEdge(localBins, m_axes);
   }
 
   /// @copydoc Acts::IGrid::upperRightBinEdgeAny
   AnyPointType upperRightBinEdgeAny(AnyIndexType indices) const override {
     return toAnyPointType(upperRightBinEdge(toIndexType(indices)));
   }
 
   /// @brief get bin width along each specific axis
   ///
   /// @return array giving the bin width alonf all axes
   point_t binWidth() const { return detail::grid_helper::getWidth(m_axes); }
 
   /// @brief get number of bins along each specific axis
   ///
   /// @return array giving the number of bins along all axes
   ///
   /// @note Not including under- and overflow bins
   index_t numLocalBins() const { return detail::grid_helper::getNBins(m_axes); }
 
   /// @copydoc Acts::IGrid::numLocalBinsAny
   AnyIndexType numLocalBinsAny() const override {
     return toAnyIndexType(numLocalBins());
   }
 
   /// @brief get the minimum value of all axes of one grid
   ///
   /// @return array returning the minima of all given axes
   point_t minPosition() const { return detail::grid_helper::getMin(m_axes); }
 
   /// @brief get the maximum value of all axes of one grid
   ///
   /// @return array returning the maxima of all given axes
   point_t maxPosition() const { return detail::grid_helper::getMax(m_axes); }
 
   /// @brief set all overflow and underflow bins to a certain value
   ///
   /// @param [in] value value to be inserted in every overflow and underflow
   ///                   bin of the grid.
   ///
   void setExteriorBins(const value_type& value) {
     for (std::size_t index : detail::grid_helper::exteriorBinIndices(m_axes)) {
       at(index) = value;
     }
   }
 
   /// @brief interpolate grid values to given position
   ///
   /// @tparam Point type specifying geometric positions
   /// @tparam U     dummy template parameter identical to @c T
   ///
   /// @param [in] point location to which to interpolate grid values. The
   ///                   position must be within the grid dimensions and not
   ///                   lie in an under-/overflow bin along any axis.
   ///
   /// @return interpolated value at given position
   ///
   /// @pre The given @c Point type must represent a point in d (or higher)
   ///      dimensions where d is dimensionality of the grid.
   ///
   /// @note This function is available only if the following conditions are
   /// fulfilled:
   /// - Given @c U and @c V of value type @c T as well as two @c double
   /// @c a and @c b, then the following must be a valid expression <tt>a * U + b
   /// * V</tt> yielding an object which is (implicitly) convertible to @c T.
   /// - @c Point must represent a d-dimensional position and support
   /// coordinate access using @c operator[] which should return a @c
   /// double (or a value which is implicitly convertible). Coordinate
   /// indices must start at 0.
   /// @note Bin values are interpreted as being the field values at the
   /// lower-left corner of the corresponding hyper-box.
   template <class Point>
   T interpolate(const Point& point) const
     requires(Concepts::interpolatable<T, Point, std::array<double, DIM>,
                                       std::array<double, DIM>>)
   {
     // there are 2^DIM corner points used during the interpolation
     constexpr std::size_t nCorners = 1 << DIM;
 
     // construct vector of pairs of adjacent bin centers and values
     std::array<value_type, nCorners> neighbors{};
 
     // get local indices for current bin
     // value of bin is interpreted as being the field value at its lower left
     // corner
     const auto& llIndices = localBinsFromPosition(point);
 
     // get global indices for all surrounding corner points
     const auto& closestIndices = rawClosestPointsIndices(llIndices);
 
     // get values on grid points
     std::size_t i = 0;
     for (std::size_t index : closestIndices) {
       neighbors.at(i++) = at(index);
     }
 
     return Acts::interpolate(point, lowerLeftBinEdge(llIndices),
                              upperRightBinEdge(llIndices), neighbors);
   }
 
   /// @brief check whether given point is inside grid limits
   ///
   /// @param position Point to check for inclusion within grid boundaries
   /// @return @c true if \f$\text{xmin_i} \le x_i < \text{xmax}_i \forall i=0,
   ///         \dots, d-1\f$, otherwise @c false
   ///
   /// @pre The given @c Point type must represent a point in d (or higher)
   ///      dimensions where d is dimensionality of the grid.
   ///
   /// @post If @c true is returned, the global bin containing the given point
   ///       is a valid bin, i.e. it is neither a underflow nor an overflow bin
   ///       along any axis.
   template <class Point>
   bool isInside(const Point& position) const {
     return detail::grid_helper::isInside(position, m_axes);
   }
 
   /// @brief get global bin indices for neighborhood
   ///
   /// @param [in] localBins center bin defined by local bin indices along each
   ///                       axis
   /// @param [in] size      size of neighborhood determining how many adjacent
   ///                       bins along each axis are considered
   /// @return set of global bin indices for all bins in neighborhood
   ///
   /// @note Over-/underflow bins are included in the neighborhood.
   /// @note The @c size parameter sets the range by how many units each local
   ///       bin index is allowed to be varied. All local bin indices are
   ///       varied independently, that is diagonal neighbors are included.
   ///       Ignoring the truncation of the neighborhood size reaching beyond
   ///       over-/underflow bins, the neighborhood is of size \f$2 \times
   ///       \text{size}+1\f$ along each dimension.
   detail::GlobalNeighborHoodIndices<DIM> neighborHoodIndices(
       const index_t& localBins, std::size_t size = 1u) const {
     return detail::grid_helper::neighborHoodIndices(localBins, size, m_axes);
   }
 
   /// @brief get global bin   indices for neighborhood
   ///
   /// @param [in] localBins   center bin defined by local bin indices along
   ///                         each axis. If size is negative, center bin
   ///                         is not returned.
   /// @param [in] sizePerAxis size of neighborhood for each axis, how many
   ///                         adjacent bins along each axis are considered
   /// @return set of global bin indices for all bins in neighborhood
   ///
   /// @note Over-/underflow bins are included in the neighborhood.
   /// @note The @c size parameter sets the range by how many units each local
   ///       bin index is allowed to be varied. All local bin indices are
   ///       varied independently, that is diagonal neighbors are included.
   ///       Ignoring the truncation of the neighborhood size reaching beyond
   ///       over-/underflow bins, the neighborhood is of size \f$2 \times
   ///       \text{size}+1\f$ along each dimension.
   detail::GlobalNeighborHoodIndices<DIM> neighborHoodIndices(
       const index_t& localBins,
       std::array<std::pair<int, int>, DIM>& sizePerAxis) const {
     return detail::grid_helper::neighborHoodIndices(localBins, sizePerAxis,
                                                     m_axes);
   }
 
   /// @brief total number of bins
   ///
   /// @param fullCounter Whether to include under-and overflow bins in the count
   /// @return total number of bins in the grid
   ///
   /// @note This number contains under-and overflow bins along all axes.
   std::size_t size(bool fullCounter = true) const {
     index_t nBinsArray = numLocalBins();
     std::size_t current_size = 1;
     // add under-and overflow bins for each axis and multiply all bins
     if (fullCounter) {
       for (const auto& value : nBinsArray) {
         current_size *= value + 2;
       }
     }
     // ignore under-and overflow bins for each axis and multiply all bins
     else {
       for (const auto& value : nBinsArray) {
         current_size *= value;
       }
     }
     return current_size;
   }
 
   /// @brief Convenience function to convert the type of the grid
   /// to hold another object type.
   ///
   /// @tparam U the new grid value type
   ///
   /// @return a new grid with the same axes and a different value type
   template <typename U>
   Grid<U, Axes...> convertType() const {
     Grid<U, Axes...> cGrid(m_axes);
     return cGrid;
   }
 
   /// @brief Convenience function to convert the type of the grid
   /// to hold another object type.
   ///
   /// @tparam converter_t the converter type
   ///
   /// This is designed to be most flexible with a converter object
   /// as a visitor. If needed, such a visitor could also use
   /// caching or other techniques to speed up the conversion.
   ///
   /// @param cVisitor the converter object as visitor
   ///
   /// @return a new grid with the same axes and a different value type
   template <typename converter_t>
   Grid<typename converter_t::value_type, Axes...> convertGrid(
       converter_t& cVisitor) const {
     Grid<typename converter_t::value_type, Axes...> cGrid(m_axes);
     // Loop through the values and convert them
     for (std::size_t i = 0; i < size(); i++) {
       cGrid.at(i) = cVisitor(at(i));
     }
     return cGrid;
   }
 
   /// @brief get the axes as a tuple
   /// @return Reference to the tuple containing all grid axes
   const std::tuple<Axes...>& axesTuple() const { return m_axes; }
 
   /// @brief get the axes as an array of IAxis pointers
   /// @return Vector containing pointers to all grid axes
   boost::container::small_vector<const IAxis*, 3> axes() const override {
     boost::container::small_vector<const IAxis*, 3> result;
     auto axes = detail::grid_helper::getAxes(m_axes);
     std::copy(axes.begin(), axes.end(), std::back_inserter(result));
     return result;
   }
 
   /// begin iterator for global bins
   /// @return Iterator pointing to the first global bin
   global_iterator_t begin() const { return global_iterator_t(*this, 0); }
 
   /// end iterator for global bins
   /// @return Iterator pointing one past the last global bin
   global_iterator_t end() const { return global_iterator_t(*this, size()); }
 
   /// @brief begin iterator for local bins
   ///
   /// @param navigator is local navigator for the grid
   /// @return Iterator pointing to the first local bin
   local_iterator_t begin(
       const std::array<std::vector<std::size_t>, DIM>& navigator) const {
     std::array<std::size_t, DIM> localBin{};
     return local_iterator_t(*this, std::move(localBin), navigator);
   }
 
   /// @brief end iterator for local bins
   ///
   /// @param navigator is local navigator for the grid
   /// @return Iterator pointing one past the last local bin
   local_iterator_t end(
       const std::array<std::vector<std::size_t>, DIM>& navigator) const {
     std::array<std::size_t, DIM> endline{};
     for (std::size_t i(0ul); i < DIM; ++i) {
       endline[i] = navigator[i].size();
     }
     return local_iterator_t(*this, std::move(endline), navigator);
   }
 
  protected:
   void toStream(std::ostream& os) const override {
     printAxes(os, std::make_index_sequence<sizeof...(Axes)>());
   }
 
  private:
   /// set of axis defining the multi-dimensional grid
   std::tuple<Axes...> m_axes;
   /// linear value store for each bin
   std::vector<T> m_values;
 
   // Part of closestPointsIndices that goes after local bins resolution.
   // Used as an interpolation performance optimization, but not exposed as it
   // doesn't make that much sense from an API design standpoint.
   detail::GlobalNeighborHoodIndices<DIM> rawClosestPointsIndices(
       const index_t& localBins) const {
     return detail::grid_helper::closestPointsIndices(localBins, m_axes);
   }
 
   template <std::size_t... Is>
   void printAxes(std::ostream& os, std::index_sequence<Is...> /*s*/) const {
     auto printOne = [&os, this]<std::size_t index>(
                         std::integral_constant<std::size_t, index>) {
       if constexpr (index > 0) {
         os << ", ";
       }
       os << std::get<index>(m_axes);
     };
     (printOne(std::integral_constant<std::size_t, Is>()), ...);
   }
 
   static AnyIndexType toAnyIndexType(const index_t& indices) {
     AnyIndexType anyIndices;
     anyIndices.reserve(indices.size());
     std::ranges::copy(indices, std::back_inserter(anyIndices));
     return anyIndices;
   }
 
   static AnyPointType toAnyPointType(const point_t& point) {
     AnyPointType anyPoint;
     anyPoint.reserve(point.size());
     std::ranges::copy(point, std::back_inserter(anyPoint));
     return anyPoint;
   }
 
   static index_t toIndexType(const AnyIndexType& indices) {
     if (indices.size() != DIM) {
       throw std::invalid_argument("Invalid number of indices");
     }
     index_t concrete;
     std::ranges::copy(indices, concrete.begin());
     return concrete;
   }
 };
 
 /// Deduction guide for Grid with rvalue reference axes
 /// @param axes Variable number of axes (rvalue references)
 template <typename T, class... Axes>
 Grid(TypeTag<T> /*type*/, Axes&&... axes) -> Grid<T, Axes...>;
 
 /// Deduction guide for Grid with lvalue reference axes
 /// @param axes Variable number of axes (lvalue references)
 template <typename T, class... Axes>
 Grid(TypeTag<T> /*type*/, Axes&... axes) -> Grid<T, Axes...>;
 
 }  // namespace Acts

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