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 // This file is part of the ACTS project.
 //
 // Copyright (C) 2016 CERN for the benefit of the ACTS project
 //
 // This Source Code Form is subject to the terms of the Mozilla Public
 // License, v. 2.0. If a copy of the MPL was not distributed with this
 // file, You can obtain one at https://mozilla.org/MPL/2.0/.
 
 #pragma once
 
 #include "Acts/Definitions/Tolerance.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Geometry/PortalError.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Geometry/PortalLinkBase.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Geometry/TrackingVolume.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Surfaces/CylinderSurface.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Surfaces/DiscSurface.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Surfaces/PlaneSurface.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Utilities/AxisDefinitions.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Utilities/Grid.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Utilities/Logger.hpp"
 #include "Acts/Utilities/ThrowAssert.hpp"
 
 #include <iosfwd>
 
 namespace Acts {
 
 class IGrid;
 class TrivialPortalLink;
 
 template <typename... Axes>
   requires(sizeof...(Axes) <= 2)
 class GridPortalLinkT;
 
 /// GridPortalLink implements a subdivided surface where the target volume
 /// depends on the position on the surface. The link can be in two states:
 /// 1. One-dimensional binning with an associated *direction* to determine which
 ///    local coordinate to use for the lookup
 /// 2. Two-dimensional binning
 /// @note The grid dimensions and boundaries are **required** (and checked) to be
 ///       consistent with the surface bounds.
 class GridPortalLink : public PortalLinkBase {
  protected:
   /// Constructor from a surface and a direction, for initialization by derived
   /// class
   /// @param surface The surface
   /// @param direction The binning direction
   GridPortalLink(std::shared_ptr<RegularSurface> surface,
                  AxisDirection direction);
 
  public:
   /// Override the destructor so we can get away with forward declaration of
   /// `TrivialPortalLink`
   ~GridPortalLink() override;
 
   /// Factory function for a one-dimensional grid portal link, which allows
   /// using template deduction to figure out the right type
   /// @tparam axis_t The axis type
   /// @param surface The surface
   /// @param direction The binning direction
   /// @param axis The axis to use for the binning
   /// @note The axis boundaries are checked against the bounds of @p surface.
   /// @return A unique pointer to the grid portal link
   template <AxisConcept axis_t>
   static std::unique_ptr<GridPortalLinkT<axis_t>> make(
       const std::shared_ptr<RegularSurface>& surface, AxisDirection direction,
       axis_t&& axis) {
     using enum AxisDirection;
     if (dynamic_cast<const CylinderSurface*>(surface.get()) != nullptr) {
       if (direction != AxisZ && direction != AxisRPhi) {
         throw std::invalid_argument{"Invalid binning direction"};
       }
     } else if (dynamic_cast<const DiscSurface*>(surface.get()) != nullptr &&
                direction != AxisR && direction != AxisPhi) {
       throw std::invalid_argument{"Invalid binning direction"};
     } else if (dynamic_cast<const PlaneSurface*>(surface.get()) != nullptr &&
                direction != AxisX && direction != AxisY) {
       throw std::invalid_argument{"Invalid binning direction"};
     }
 
     return std::make_unique<GridPortalLinkT<axis_t>>(
         surface, direction, std::forward<axis_t>(axis));
   }
 
   /// Factory function for a two-dimensional grid portal link, which allows
   /// using template deduction to figure out the right type.
   /// @tparam axis_1_t The first axis type
   /// @tparam axis_2_t The second axis type
   /// @param surface The surface
   /// @param axis1 The first axis to use for the binning
   /// @param axis2 The second axis to use for the binning
   /// @note The axis boundaries are checked against the bounds of @p surface.
   /// @return A unique pointer to the grid portal link
   template <AxisConcept axis_1_t, AxisConcept axis_2_t>
   static std::unique_ptr<GridPortalLinkT<axis_1_t, axis_2_t>> make(
       const std::shared_ptr<RegularSurface>& surface, axis_1_t axis1,
       axis_2_t axis2) {
     std::optional<AxisDirection> direction;
     if (dynamic_cast<const CylinderSurface*>(surface.get()) != nullptr) {
       direction = AxisDirection::AxisRPhi;
     } else if (dynamic_cast<const DiscSurface*>(surface.get()) != nullptr) {
       direction = AxisDirection::AxisR;
     } else if (dynamic_cast<const PlaneSurface*>(surface.get()) != nullptr) {
       direction = AxisDirection::AxisX;
     }
 
     return std::make_unique<GridPortalLinkT<axis_1_t, axis_2_t>>(
         surface, direction.value(), std::move(axis1), std::move(axis2));
   }
 
   /// Factory function for an automatically sized one-dimensional grid. This produces a single-bin grid with boundaries taken from the bounds of @p surface along @p direction.
   /// @param surface The surface
   /// @param volume The tracking volume
   /// @param direction The binning direction
   /// @return A unique pointer to the grid portal link
   static std::unique_ptr<GridPortalLink> make(
       const std::shared_ptr<RegularSurface>& surface, TrackingVolume& volume,
       AxisDirection direction);
 
   /// Factory function for a one-dimensional grid portal link from a
   /// type-erased axis. Dispatches to the templated overload inside Core, so
   /// callers do not instantiate every axis type themselves.
   /// @param surface The surface
   /// @param direction The binning direction
   /// @param axis The axis to use for the binning
   /// @return A unique pointer to the grid portal link
   static std::unique_ptr<GridPortalLink> make(
       const std::shared_ptr<RegularSurface>& surface, AxisDirection direction,
       const IAxis& axis);
 
   /// Factory function for a two-dimensional grid portal link from type-erased
   /// axes, see the one-dimensional overload.
   /// @param surface The surface
   /// @param axis0 The first axis to use for the binning
   /// @param axis1 The second axis to use for the binning
   /// @return A unique pointer to the grid portal link
   static std::unique_ptr<GridPortalLink> make(
       const std::shared_ptr<RegularSurface>& surface, const IAxis& axis0,
       const IAxis& axis1);
 
   /// Merge two grid portal links into a single one. The routine can merge
   /// one-dimensional, two-dimensional and mixed links. The merge will try to
   /// preserve equidistant binning in case bin widths match. Otherwise, the
   /// merge falls back to variable binning.
   ///
   /// 1D merge scenarios:
   ///
   /// ```
   /// +----------------------------------------------------------+
   /// |Colinear                                                  |
   /// |                                                          |
   /// | +-------+-------+-------+     +-------+-------+-------+  |
   /// | |       |       |       |     |       |       |       |  |
   /// | |       |       |       |  +  |       |       |       |  |
   /// | |       |       |       |     |       |       |       |  |
   /// | +-------+-------+-------+     +-------+-------+-------+  |
   /// |       +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+  |
   /// |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |  |
   /// |    =  |       |       |       |       |       |       |  |
   /// |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |  |
   /// |       +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+  |
   /// |                                                          |
   /// +----------------------------------------------------------+
   /// ```
   ///
   /// Two grid along a shared direction are merged along their shared direction
   ///
   /// ```
   /// +-------------------------------------------------+
   /// |Parallel                                         |
   /// |                                                 |
   /// | +-------+      +-------+     +-------+-------+  |
   /// | |       |      |       |     |       |       |  |
   /// | |       |      |       |     |       |       |  |
   /// | |       |      |       |     |       |       |  |
   /// | +-------+      +-------+     +-------+-------+  |
   /// | |       |      |       |     |       |       |  |
   /// | |       |  +   |       |  =  |       |       |  |
   /// | |       |      |       |     |       |       |  |
   /// | +-------+      +-------+     +-------+-------+  |
   /// | |       |      |       |     |       |       |  |
   /// | |       |      |       |     |       |       |  |
   /// | |       |      |       |     |       |       |  |
   /// | +-------+      +-------+     +-------+-------+  |
   /// |                                                 |
   /// +-------------------------------------------------+
   /// ```
   ///
   /// Two grids along a shared direction a merged in the direction that is
   /// orthogonal to their shared direction.
   ///
   /// ```
   /// +-------------------------------------------+
   /// |Perpendicular                              |
   /// |                                           |
   /// |  +-------+                                |
   /// |  |       |                                |
   /// |  |       |                                |
   /// |  |       |                                |
   /// |  +-------+     +-------+-------+-------+  |
   /// |  |       |     |       |       |       |  |
   /// |  |       |  +  |       |       |       |  |
   /// |  |       |     |       |       |       |  |
   /// |  +-------+     +-------+-------+-------+  |
   /// |  |       |                                |
   /// |  |       |                                |
   /// |  |       |     +-------+-------+-------+  |
   /// |  +-------+     |       |       |       |  |
   /// |                |       |       |       |  |
   /// |                |       |       |       |  |
   /// |                +-------+-------+-------+  |
   /// |                |       |       |       |  |
   /// |             =  |       |       |       |  |
   /// |                |       |       |       |  |
   /// |                +-------+-------+-------+  |
   /// |                |       |       |       |  |
   /// |                |       |       |       |  |
   /// |                |       |       |       |  |
   /// |                +-------+-------+-------+  |
   /// |                                           |
   /// +-------------------------------------------+
   /// ```
   ///
   /// Two grids whose directions are not shared are merged (ordering does not
   /// matter here). The routine will expand one of the grids to match the
   /// other's binning, by subdividing the grid in the as-of-yet unbinned
   /// direction, while filling all bins with the original bin contents.
   /// Afterwards, a conventional mixed-dimension merge is performed.
   ///
   /// Mixed merge scenarios
   /// The order is normalized by always taking the 2D grid as the left hand
   /// side. The 1D grid is expanded to match the binning in the as-of-yet
   /// unbinned direction with the binning taken from the 2D grid.
   ///
   /// ```
   /// +-----------------------------------------+
   /// |2D + 1D                                  |
   /// |                                         |
   /// | +-------+-------+     +-------+-------+ |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | +-------+-------+     +-------+-------+ |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | +-------+-------+  =  +-------+-------+ |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | +-------+-------+     +-------+-------+ |
   /// |         +             |       |       | |
   /// | +-------+-------+     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     +-------+-------+ |
   /// | |       |       |                       |
   /// | +-------+-------+                       |
   /// +-----------------------------------------+
   /// ```
   ///
   /// ```
   /// +--------------------------------------------------------------+
   /// |2D + 1D                                                       |
   /// |                                                              |
   /// | +-------+-------+    +-------+     +-------+-------+-------+ |
   /// | |       |       |    |       |     |       |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |    |       |     |       |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |    |       |     |       |       |       | |
   /// | +-------+-------+    +-------+     +-------+-------+-------+ |
   /// | |       |       |    |       |     |       |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |  + |       |  =  |       |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |    |       |     |       |       |       | |
   /// | +-------+-------+    +-------+     +-------+-------+-------+ |
   /// | |       |       |    |       |     |       |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |    |       |     |       |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |    |       |     |       |       |       | |
   /// | +-------+-------+    +-------+     +-------+-------+-------+ |
   /// |                                                              |
   /// +--------------------------------------------------------------+
   /// ```
   ///
   /// 2D merges
   /// The grids need to already share a common axis. If that is not the case,
   /// the merge routine returns a `nullptr`. This can be handled by composite
   /// merging as a fallback if needed.
   /// Ordering and direction does not matter here.
   ///
   /// ```
   /// +-----------------------------------------+
   /// |2D + 2D                                  |
   /// |                                         |
   /// | +-------+-------+     +-------+-------+ |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | +-------+-------+     +-------+-------+ |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |  +  |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | +-------+-------+     +-------+-------+ |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | |       |       |     |       |       | |
   /// | +-------+-------+     +-------+-------+ |
   /// |                                         |
   /// |       +-------+-------+-------+-------+ |
   /// |       |       |       |       |       | |
   /// |       |       |       |       |       | |
   /// |       |       |       |       |       | |
   /// |       +-------+-------+-------+-------+ |
   /// |       |       |       |       |       | |
   /// |   =   |       |       |       |       | |
   /// |       |       |       |       |       | |
   /// |       +-------+-------+-------+-------+ |
   /// |       |       |       |       |       | |
   /// |       |       |       |       |       | |
   /// |       |       |       |       |       | |
   /// |       +-------+-------+-------+-------+ |
   /// |                                         |
   /// +-----------------------------------------+
   /// ```
   ///
   /// @param a The first grid portal link
   /// @param b The second grid portal link
   /// @param direction The merging direction
   /// @param logger The logger to use for messages
   /// @return The merged grid portal link or nullptr if grid merging did not succeed
   /// @note The returned pointer can be nullptr, if the grids
   ///       given are not mergeable, because their binnings are
   ///       not compatible. This is not an error case, and needs
   ///       to be handled by the caller! Invalid input is handled
   ///       via exceptions.
   static std::unique_ptr<PortalLinkBase> merge(
       const GridPortalLink& a, const GridPortalLink& b, AxisDirection direction,
       const Logger& logger = getDummyLogger());
 
   /// Return the associated grid in a type-erased form
   /// @return The grid
   virtual const IGrid& grid() const = 0;
 
   /// Return the associated grid in a type-erased form
   /// @return The grid
   virtual IGrid& grid() = 0;
 
   /// Set the volume on all grid bins
   /// @param volume The volume to set
   virtual void setVolume(TrackingVolume* volume) = 0;
 
   /// Get the number of dimensions of the grid
   /// @return The number of dimensions
   virtual unsigned int dim() const = 0;
 
   /// Expand a 1D grid to a 2D one, by using the provided axis along the
   /// *missing* direction.
   /// @param other The axis to use for the missing direction,
   ///              can be null for auto determination
   /// @return A unique pointer to the 2D grid portal link
   virtual std::unique_ptr<GridPortalLink> extendTo2d(
       const IAxis* other) const = 0;
 
   /// The binning direction of the grid
   /// @note For 2D grids, this will always be the loc0
   ///       direction, depending on the surface type.
   /// @return The binning direction
   AxisDirection direction() const { return m_direction; }
 
   /// Helper function to fill the bin contents after merging.
   /// This called by the merging routine, and requires access to the internal
   /// grid state.
   /// @param a The first grid portal link
   /// @param b The second grid portal link
   /// @param merged The merged grid portal link
   /// @param direction The merging direction
   /// @param logger The logger to use for messages
   static void fillMergedGrid(const GridPortalLink& a, const GridPortalLink& b,
                              GridPortalLink& merged, AxisDirection direction,
                              const Logger& logger);
 
   /// Helper function that prints a textual representation of the grid with the
   /// volume names.
   /// @param os The output stream
   void printContents(std::ostream& os) const;
 
   /// Get the artifact portal links
   /// @return Span of artifact portal links
   std::span<const TrivialPortalLink> artifactPortalLinks() const;
   /// Set the artifact portal links
   /// @param links Vector of trivial portal links to set
   void setArtifactPortalLinks(std::vector<TrivialPortalLink> links);
 
  protected:
   /// Helper function to check consistency for grid on a cylinder surface
   /// @param grid the grid to check
   /// @param direction The binning direction
   /// @param cyl The cylinder surface
   static void checkConsistency(const IGrid& grid, AxisDirection direction,
                                const CylinderSurface& cyl);
 
   /// Helper function to check consistency for grid on a disc surface
   /// @param grid the grid to check
   /// @param direction The binning direction
   /// @param disc The disc surface
   static void checkConsistency(const IGrid& grid, AxisDirection direction,
                                const DiscSurface& disc);
   /// Helper function to check consistency for grid on a plane surface
   /// @param grid the grid to check
   /// @param direction The binning direction
   /// @param plane The plane surface
   static void checkConsistency(const IGrid& grid, AxisDirection direction,
                                const PlaneSurface& plane);
   /// Expand a 1D grid to a 2D one for a cylinder surface
   /// @param surface The cylinder surface
   /// @param other The axis to use for the missing direction,
   ///              can be null for auto determination
   /// @return A unique pointer to the 2D grid portal link
   std::unique_ptr<GridPortalLink> extendTo2dImpl(
       const std::shared_ptr<CylinderSurface>& surface,
       const IAxis* other) const;
 
   /// Expand a 1D grid to a 2D one for a disc surface
   /// @param surface The disc surface
   /// @param other The axis to use for the missing direction,
   ///              can be null for auto determination
   /// @return A unique pointer to the 2D grid portal link
   std::unique_ptr<GridPortalLink> extendTo2dImpl(
       const std::shared_ptr<DiscSurface>& surface, const IAxis* other) const;
 
   /// Expand a 1D grid to a 2D one for a plane surface
   /// @param surface The plane surface
   /// @param other The axis to use for the missing direction,
   ///              can be null for auto determination
   /// @return A unique pointer to the 2D grid portal link
   std::unique_ptr<GridPortalLink> extendTo2dImpl(
       const std::shared_ptr<PlaneSurface>& surface, const IAxis* other) const;
 
   /// Helper enum to declare which local direction to fill
   enum class FillDirection {
     loc0,
     loc1,
   };
 
   /// Helper function to fill a 2D grid from a 1D grid, by extending all
   /// bins along the different direction.
   /// @param dir The direction to fill
   /// @param grid1d The 1D grid
   /// @param grid2d The 2D grid
   static void fillGrid1dTo2d(FillDirection dir, const GridPortalLink& grid1d,
                              GridPortalLink& grid2d);
 
  private:
   AxisDirection m_direction;
 
   /// Stores the trivial portal links that were used to build this grid portal
   /// link, if any
   std::vector<TrivialPortalLink> m_artifactPortalLinks;
 };
 
 /// Concrete class deriving from @c GridPortalLink that boxes a concrete grid for lookup.
 /// @tparam Axes The axis types of the grid
 template <typename... Axes>
   requires(sizeof...(Axes) <= 2)
 class GridPortalLinkT : public GridPortalLink {
  public:
   /// The internal grid type
   using GridType = Grid<const TrackingVolume*, Axes...>;
 
   /// The dimension of the grid
   static constexpr std::size_t DIM = sizeof...(Axes);
 
   /// Constructor from a surface, axes and direction
   /// @param surface The surface
   /// @param direction The binning direction
   /// @param axes The axes for the grid
   /// @note The axes are checked for consistency with the bounds of @p surface.
   /// @throws std::invalid_argument if an axis has an open boundary type
   GridPortalLinkT(std::shared_ptr<RegularSurface> surface,
                   AxisDirection direction, Axes&&... axes)
       : GridPortalLink(std::move(surface), direction),
         m_grid(std::tuple{std::move(axes)...}) {
     using enum AxisDirection;
 
     // prevent open axis from having a nullptr edge from under/overflow bins
     for (const IAxis* axis : m_grid.axes()) {
       if (axis->getBoundaryType() == AxisBoundaryType::Open) {
         throw std::invalid_argument(
             "GridPortalLink: open axis boundary type is not supported");
       }
     }
 
     if (const auto* cylinder =
             dynamic_cast<const CylinderSurface*>(m_surface.get())) {
       checkConsistency(m_grid, direction, *cylinder);
 
       if (direction == AxisRPhi) {
         m_projection = &projection<CylinderSurface, AxisRPhi>;
       } else if (direction == AxisZ) {
         m_projection = &projection<CylinderSurface, AxisZ>;
       } else {
         throw std::invalid_argument{"Invalid binning direction"};
       }
 
     } else if (const auto* disc =
                    dynamic_cast<const DiscSurface*>(m_surface.get())) {
       checkConsistency(m_grid, direction, *disc);
 
       if (direction == AxisR) {
         m_projection = &projection<DiscSurface, AxisR>;
       } else if (direction == AxisDirection::AxisPhi) {
         m_projection = &projection<DiscSurface, AxisPhi>;
       } else {
         throw std::invalid_argument{"Invalid binning direction"};
       }
     } else if (const auto* plane =
                    dynamic_cast<const PlaneSurface*>(m_surface.get())) {
       checkConsistency(m_grid, direction, *plane);
 
       if (direction == AxisX) {
         m_projection = &projection<PlaneSurface, AxisX>;
       } else if (direction == AxisDirection::AxisY) {
         m_projection = &projection<PlaneSurface, AxisY>;
       } else {
         throw std::invalid_argument{"Invalid binning direction"};
       }
 
     } else {
       throw std::logic_error{"Surface type is not supported"};
     }
   }
 
   /// Get the grid
   /// @return The grid
   const GridType& grid() const override { return m_grid; }
 
   /// Get the grid
   /// @return The grid
   GridType& grid() override { return m_grid; }
 
   /// Get the number of dimensions of the grid
   /// @return The number of dimensions
   unsigned int dim() const override { return DIM; }
 
   /// Prints an identification to the output stream
   /// @param os The output stream
   void toStream(std::ostream& os) const override {
     os << "GridPortalLink<dim=" << dim() << ">";
   }
 
   /// Makes a 2D grid from a 1D grid by extending it using an optional axis
   /// @param other The axis to use for the missing direction,
   ///              can be null for auto determination
   /// @return A unique pointer to the 2D grid portal link
   std::unique_ptr<GridPortalLink> extendTo2d(
       const IAxis* other) const override {
     if constexpr (DIM == 2) {
       return std::make_unique<GridPortalLinkT<Axes...>>(*this);
     } else {
       if (auto cylinder =
               std::dynamic_pointer_cast<CylinderSurface>(m_surface)) {
         return extendTo2dImpl(cylinder, other);
       } else if (auto disc =
                      std::dynamic_pointer_cast<DiscSurface>(m_surface)) {
         return extendTo2dImpl(disc, other);
       } else if (auto plane =
                      std::dynamic_pointer_cast<PlaneSurface>(m_surface)) {
         return extendTo2dImpl(plane, other);
       } else {
         throw std::logic_error{
             "Surface type is not supported (this should not happen)"};
       }
     }
   }
 
   /// Set the volume on all grid bins
   /// @param volume The volume to set
   void setVolume(TrackingVolume* volume) override {
     auto loc = m_grid.multiAxis().getNBins();
     if constexpr (GridType::DIM == 1) {
       for (std::size_t i = 1; i <= loc[0]; i++) {
         m_grid.atLocalBins({i}) = volume;
       }
     } else {
       for (std::size_t i = 1; i <= loc[0]; i++) {
         for (std::size_t j = 1; j <= loc[1]; j++) {
           m_grid.atLocalBins({i, j}) = volume;
         }
       }
     }
   }
 
   /// Lookup the tracking volume at a position on the surface
   /// @param gctx The geometry context
   /// @param position The local position
   /// @param tolerance The tolerance for the lookup
   /// @note The position is required to be on the associated surface
   /// @return The tracking volume (can be null)
   Result<const TrackingVolume*> resolveVolume(
       const GeometryContext& gctx, const Vector3& position,
       double tolerance = s_onSurfaceTolerance) const override {
     auto res = m_surface->globalToLocal(gctx, position, tolerance);
     if (!res.ok()) {
       return res.error();
     }
 
     const Vector2& local = *res;
     return resolveVolume(gctx, local, tolerance);
   }
 
   /// Lookup the tracking volume at a position on the surface
   /// @param position The local position
   /// @param tolerance The tolerance on the surface bounds
   /// @note The position is required to be on the associated surface. A position
   ///       outside the bounds by less than @p tolerance (a portal reached at
   ///       its edge) is moved onto the bounds before the lookup.
   /// @return The tracking volume (can be null), or an error if the position is
   ///         outside the bounds by more than @p tolerance
   Result<const TrackingVolume*> resolveVolume(
       const GeometryContext& /*gctx*/, const Vector2& position,
       double tolerance = s_onSurfaceTolerance) const override {
     if (surface().insideBounds(position, BoundaryTolerance::None())) {
       return m_grid.atPosition(m_projection(position));
     }
     if (!surface().insideBounds(
             position, BoundaryTolerance::AbsoluteEuclidean(tolerance))) {
       return Result<const TrackingVolume*>::failure(
           PortalError::PositionOutsideLinkBounds);
     }
     const SurfaceBounds& bounds = surface().bounds();
     const Vector2 onBounds =
         bounds.closestPoint(position, bounds.boundToCartesianMetric(position));
     return m_grid.atPosition(m_projection(onBounds));
   }
 
  private:
   /// Helper function that's assigned to project from the 2D local position to a
   /// possible 1D grid.
   template <class surface_t, AxisDirection direction>
   static Vector<DIM> projection(const Vector2& position) {
     using enum AxisDirection;
     if constexpr (DIM == 2) {
       return position;
     } else {
       if constexpr (std::is_same_v<surface_t, CylinderSurface>) {
         static_assert(direction == AxisRPhi || direction == AxisZ,
                       "Invalid binning direction");
 
         if constexpr (direction == AxisRPhi) {
           return Vector<1>{position[0]};
         } else if constexpr (direction == AxisZ) {
           return Vector<1>{position[1]};
         }
       } else if constexpr (std::is_same_v<surface_t, DiscSurface>) {
         static_assert(direction == AxisR || direction == AxisPhi,
                       "Invalid binning direction");
 
         if constexpr (direction == AxisR) {
           return Vector<1>{position[0]};
         } else if constexpr (direction == AxisPhi) {
           return Vector<1>{position[1]};
         }
       } else if constexpr (std::is_same_v<surface_t, PlaneSurface>) {
         static_assert(direction == AxisX || direction == AxisY,
                       "Invalid binning direction");
 
         if constexpr (direction == AxisX) {
           return Vector<1>{position[0]};
         } else if constexpr (direction == AxisY) {
           return Vector<1>{position[1]};
         }
       }
     }
   }
 
   GridType m_grid;
 
   /// Stores a function pointer that can project from 2D to 1D if needed
   Vector<DIM> (*m_projection)(const Vector2& position);
 };
 
 }  // namespace Acts

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